18th Century
Art and Architecture
The 18th century was an age of great change in Europe. Industrialism was beginning and established society was challenged by ideas (rights and dignity) of common people. Modern democracy was introduced via the revolutions in America and France.
Rococo was introduced as a new artistic style.
ROCOCO
NÉO-CLASSICISM: FRANCE
UNITED STATES
BOFFRAND: OVAL SALON OF PRINCESS, 1739
Hotel Soubise, Paris.
Princess' salon was located on the second storey of a circular pavilion that was added to a wealthy Parisian townhouse in 1739.
Rococo = interior style that included furniture, ustensils, accessories, small art objects.
Rococo style is created with curving surfaces, elaborate and detailed decoration, irregular shapes.
The word Rococo comes from the French "rocaille", meaning pebble. It refers to small stones and shells used to decorate interiors of grottos.
With the death of Louis XIV, the court returned to Paris and resided in the Tuileries palace and Palais Royal.
During the first third of the 18th century, there was a lot of expensive townhouse-building in Paris. It took its point of departure from the expansiveness of palace design under Louis XIV, displaying wealth and taste.
The age of Louis XV, 1715-74, is usually associated with Rococo style which began c. 1730.
| ANTOINE WATTEAU, 1684-1721 |
Born in Valenciennes near the Flemish border. Arrived in Paris c. 1702.
Personal and independent artist who rejected traditional subject category of history painting and preferred to sketch what appealed to him. There was a positive public response to his art.
Despite a short career of 19 years (he died at age 37), Watteau was very influential on later artists of the 18th century.
WATTEAU: GAMUT OF LOVE, 1717
o/c 20x23-1/4, National Gallery, London
Fête galante. Painting theme that depicted the amusement/entertainment of elegant society.
His technique: underpainting of pearly colour combined with white, pale blue and rose. When it dried, he quickly brushed in trees and background with thin washes of colour, then added important figures in empastos of jewel-like colours. Glazes were added over these to create warm, atmospheric effect through which earlier colours sparkled. He captures the textures of silk and satin, popular materials among French aristocracy.
This painting is a small theatrical piece of successive stages of love: courtship (foreground couple), marriage (couple walks off together) and family (couple with children).
Watteau's art represent merging of fantasy of stage with reality of everyday life.
WATTEAU: PILGRIMAGE TO CYTHERA, 1717
o/c, 4'3" x 6' 4.5"
Fête galante painted as his acceptance piece for admission to the Academy.
- illustrates the end of a voyage to Cythera, island of eternal youth and love, where Venus/Aphrodite rose from the sea.
- Participants have come and made their offerings to the cult statue at right and now at sunset, they prepare to leave for the mainland.
This pilgrimage has been an escape into a fantasy world but not totally idyllic, since it's temporary (merging of fantasy and reality).
- Idea of time's passage is also reflected in compositional movement unwinding from the cult statue at right to the boat below at left.
Three pairs of lovers in right foreground also depict different aspects of same couple -
far right: they are still under the spell of love goddess (woman ignores cupid tugging at her skirt)
Third pair moves off but look back regretfully.
Many of Watteau's works were not commissioned. Rather than having to depend on the taste of his patrons, Watteauy presented his own preference, thereby influencing the taste of the period.
He was not a realist, nor painter of nature, but he dealt with humanity within the social framework.
| FRANÇOIS BOUCHER, 1703-70 |
Continued elements of Watteau's art to a charming extreme of "seductive prettiness".
BOUCHER: FOUNTAIN OF LOVE, 1748-55
Tapestry cartoon: actual size colour painting to be turned over to the tapestry weavers.
Possibly a commission for Louis XV or Mme de Pompadour, his mistress and important arts patron.
Romantic and idealized setting rendered in pretty colours: costumes, fountains, mill house surrounded by feathery trees.
Because the 18th century enjoyed the vision of nature and humanity unspoiled by the view of advanced civilization, it encouraged the development of minor categories of art: landscape, still life and genre.
| JEAN-BAPTISTE SIMEON CHARDIN, 1699-1779 |
Born in Paris, lower middle class background. Received little formal education. Was a self-taught artist.
His patrons: the rising middle class who believed in hard work, frugality, honesty and family.
CHARDIN: STILL LIFE WITH PLUMS, 1758
O/C, C.16X20", Frick, New York.
Common object found in the kitchen become important due to attention to detail: quiet, dignity.
Triangular composition provides a unified and powerful effect.
CHARDIN: SAYING GRACE, 1740 (Salon)
o/c, c. 20x15, Le Louvre, Louis XV collection.
Genre scene, depicts life in Parisian middle-class household.
Quiet dignity of simple, religious people. Often used nurses, servants and children as subjects.
Solid, heavy and simple subjects, rendered with details of texture.
Exact opposite of flamboyant Rococo: symbolizes power in common people who will soon overthrow the monarchy.
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New kind of art called "view painting" emerged in Venice in early 18th century.
| ANTONIO CANALETTO, 1697-1768 |
(Giovanni Antonio Canal)
Depicted European city views with great accuracy, displaying precise perspective achieved through use of the camera obscura.
View painting became popular to European tourists doing the "grand tour".
CANALETTO: BASIN OF S. MARCO ON ASCENSION DAY, c.1740
He specialized in views of Venice, some with historical importance.
Grand Canal is full of gondolas and boats celebrating the religious feast of Ascension.
Recognizable landmarks: Doge's Palace in front of St Mark's Basilica and library on left with tall campanile behind it.
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| Sir JOSHUA REYNOLDS, 1723-92 |
President of the Royal Academy (based on French school) in London since its founding in 1768.
Archrival of Gainsborough.
Reynolds had practiced academic approach to art (two years in Rome, influenced by Renaissance and classical painting and architecture).
REYNOLDS: LADY SARAH BUNBURY SACRIFICING TO THE GRACES, 1765
o/c, 94x60"
Placed his figures in classical settings to enhance their nobility.
Contemporary woman makes sacrifice to Three Graces.
| THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH, 1727-88 |
Began as landscape painter and became popular portraitist of British high society.
GAINSBOROUGH: MORNING WALK, 1785
Double portrait with landscape background-possibly a marriage portrait.
Loose brushwork, feathery trees, elongated proportions to make figures look more elegant.
Full length, standing figures against landscape background: influence of Van Dyck.
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During the 18th century, Americans were still struggling to establish their cities and farms in a new land. They had no time for the frivolities of Rococo, nor the wealth to support artists of the stature of Gainsborough and Reynolds.
Born in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
1759-1762: lived and painted in Rome.
1762: moved to London; ex-patriate.
Important painter of portraits and history painting; painted American historical events from his London studio.
His style and art belong to study of English Art. He succeeded Reynolds as president of the Royal Academy of Arts; he was historical painter to King George III.
WEST: DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE, 1770
o/c, c. 61x84", National Gallery, Ottawa
Wolfe had died 10 years earlier during the siege of Quebec in the French and Indian War. Traditional history paintings were set in classical ancient Rome (togas and scenery).
New here: West clothed subjects in contemporary dress, making them more real.
Old: he used Baroque lighting and pathos for dramatic effect.
This work influenced 19th century American history painting.
| JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, 1738-1815 |
Son of Irish immigrants to Boston; important New England portraitist.
Expatriate American artist West encouraged Copley to study art in Europe. He developed his own style after carefully studying paintings of European artists working in America.
Copley was torn between his affluent in-laws and clients who were pro-British and his radical friends, including Paul Revere, John Hancock and Samuel Adams.
1775: moved to London permanently and adapted formulas of British portrait painting.
COPLEY: PAUL REVERE, 1768-70
o/c, c.35x28, BMFA
Objects allude to his roles as silversmith (teapot), printmaker (tools), businessman (clothes) amd patriot (Longfellow's famous poem of Revere's midnight ride).
Sharp light and pensive philosopher's pose (hand to chin).
Type of informal portrait that originated in France.
Solid figure set against dark background.
COPLEY: BOY WITH A SQUIRREL (HENRY PELHAM), 1765
o/c, c.30x25"
Earlier portrait of his half-brother.
1766: exhibited this portrait in London. Received critical praise.
Rich display of texture. High degree of naturalism = private portraiture.
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As the enlightenment took on a more earnest and moralizing tone, a reaction developed against the Baroque and Rococo art of the 17th and 18th centuries that caused a move away from the decorative to the simple.
By mid-18th century, in Europe, a classical revival was beginning to develop which caused a renewed interest in ancient art.
Recent excavations of Herculaneum (1738) and Pompeii (1748) brought forth a wealth of ancient material: paintings, sculpture and household items that had remained buried in these two ancient Roman cities since the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD.
He came from a family involved in the arts: masons and architects on his mother's side.
He studied with Boucher, learned colourist tradition of Rubens, and with Vien classical linear style of Poussin.
Thus, as a young artist, he was trained in both traditions.
David was the leader of the Neo-classical movement in France.
DAVID: SELF PORTRAIT, 1794
46 year old artist; painted while he was imprisoned in Luxembourg Palace due to changing political contexts.
1775-79: in Rome after winning the Prix de Rome; four year scholarship paid by the French government to study classical ancient and Renaissance art in Italy (Rome and Florence).
Rome Prize winners were required to send examples of their work back to Paris for the Salon (official, annual or biennial juried art exhibit in Paris).
Rome Prize was the social and artistic entrée (also true for England, Germany and Russia).
1784: David returned to Rome where he painted (assisted by Drouais) Oath of the Haratii and sent it back to Paris for the Salon of 1785 where it was well received.
DAVID: OATH OF THE HORATII, 1784-85
o/c, 11X14", Louvre, Paris
Shows ability to create large scale canvas with life-size figures and anatomical accuracy; fulfilled one of the requirements of the Academy.
History painting was required to carry a didactic message.
Subject from Plutarch's Life of the Romans which was a primary source for subject matter in 18th and 19th century art. Every good artist would have to read it.
Pamphlet at Salon gave explanations of subjects represented.
Story takes place during 7th century BC (reign of Tullus Hostilius 672-640 BC) when neighbouring kingdoms of Rome and Alba Longa were declining into a state of war because of a series of cattle raids along their border. Being sensible people, each side chose three of its best warriors to do batle for it: Horatii represented Rome and Curiatii represented Alba Longa.
The outcome of the combat would decide which city-state would run Latium. Rome won.
David's painting depicts the moment of dedication when Horace's three sons pledge themselves to defend their country by invoking Jupiter's bkessubg abd swearubg ti eutger conquer or die.
Classical, linear style allows for clear details to describe scene.
Smooth application and blending of colours and careful shading create volumetric rendering that is tactile (conveys perception that viewer can touch object).
Tension of physical power is expressed in sharp rendering of muscles.
Tense pose and stance emphasizes significance of the moment.
Conflicting emotions are displayed: men are determined and women react to consequences.
Older woman shields two boys and explains situation to them.
Sabina (blue dress/gold cloak) is married to one of the Horatii and is sister to Curiatii.
Camilla (white dress) is sister to Horatii and is betrothed to one of Curiatii.
Whichever side wins, will inflict a cruel bereavement within families.
Content: didactic statement = conflict between love of family and dury to one's country.
Style: subdued colour, emphasis on line, outline shapes, pattern (repetition of three arches, three triangles), even lighting.
Thus the descriptive dominates expressive and decorative aspects.
DAVID: PENCIL DRAWING OF CAMILLA
Figural study based on line and shading to create volume.
Human figures were first drawn nude (understanding of anatomy), then clothed.
Grid ussed to transfer figure to final canvas.
DAVID: COMPOSITIONAL STUDY - OATH/HORACE BEFORE SENATE
Compositional studies consider different episodes in story.
DAVID: COMPOSITIONAL STUDY - OATH/SCENE OF OATH
Moves closer to final composition.
DAVID: FINAL COMPOSITIONAL STUDY
Step-by-step process reflects academic rational method of working.
DAVID: FINAL OIL STUDY - OATH
Final solution: more simplified version, red directs the eye.
Clarity and simplicity of depiction adds to immediacy of scene.
Simple background: our attention is focused on swords.
Classical moment on stage-like setting.
Allegorical: used Ancient Roman subject matter to show parallel with contemporary French politics.
This painting is the manifesto of Neo-classicism (subject and style).
After the French Revolution of 1789, a decade of civil strife followed in France until a new leader took over in 1804. Former general Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor of the French.
DAVID: NAPOLEON IN HIS STUDY, 1812
o/c, 80x49, National Gallery, Washington DC
Classical linear style produces clarity of details that reveal aspects of Napoleon's personality (burnt down candle and clock set at 4:13 am suggest a hard-working leader).
Solid figure as immobile as a statue.
Sharply focused lighting.
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Child prodigy, started art school at age 11. Was David's most famous student at 17.
Adopted David's linear style but softer and more sensitive to texture and flesh.
Important history painter and portraitist.
INGRES: NAPOLEON I ON HIS IMPERIAL THRONE, 1806
Official state portrait of the recently crowned emperor.
PHEIDIAS: DRAWING OF LOST STATUE OF ZEUS, 5 CENTURY B.C.
Olympia
Chryselephantine cult statue, made of ivory and gold
Same frontal figure on throne. Parallel drawn to pagan god.
Det: VAN EYCK: GHENT ALTAR PIECE: GOD, 1452
Pose alludes to Christian God the Father.
INGRES: PORTRAIT OF LOUIS BERTIN, 1832
o/c, c.46x37", Le Louvre
Neo-classical portrait: seated figure against a neutral background.
Photographic naturalism before photography was invented in 1839.
Atypical of idealized portrait and has greater volumetric rendering than his usual reduced modeling.
Strong modeling and bold pose with powerful hands projects forceful personality of this Parisian editor.
INGRES: APOTHEOSIS OF HOMER, 1827
o/c, c. 12-1/2 X 17", Le Louvre
Apotheosis is the glorification of an individual or an ideal.
Symmetrically balanced composition; cool, undramatic classicism.
Blind poet Homer is crowned by Muse of epic poetry in front of Ionic temple.
Iliad is bymbolized by sword of seated red figure and Odyssey by the rudder of seated green figure.
Classical geniuses from various periods: Phidias, Pindar, Aeschylus and Apelles, Raphael, Leonardo, Fra Angelico and Poussin; Shakespeare and Molière.
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Daughter of portraitist Louis Vigée who worked in the style of Watteau.
1766: she began studying art at age 11. Was advised to study Italian and Flemish masters and nature.
Early death of her father had influenced her serious intent on art career; her art became main financial support of her family.
1776: married painter/art dealer Jean Baptiste Pierre Lebrun (173801813).
1783: she became a member of the Academy (through the intervention of Queen Marie-Antoinette).
As First Painter to the Queen, Vigée-Lebrun was only one of three female members of the Academy.
VIGÉE-LEBRUN: Mme DE STAEL AS CORINNE PLAYING A LYRE, 1789
Swiss daughter of Louis XVI's finance minister wears high-waisted dress that will become typical of Empire style.
Still using landscape backdrop for sitter.
VIGÉE-LEBRUN: SELF-PORTRAIT WITH HER DAUGHTER, 1789
Le Louvre.
Neutral background and classical costume" more informal and intimate portrait.
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Napoleon's political goal was to transform Paris into the new Rome.
VIGNON: CHURCH OF LA MADELEINE, 1806-42
Originally intended as temple of honor for Napoleon's great army.
1813: decision to make it into a church dedicated to Mary Magdalene due to the Battle of Leipzig and the loss of Spain to French Empire.
It was adapted to a church before its completion under King Louis-Philippe.
Melancholic mood is associated with this building, especially regarding Napoleon and immediately following history of 1814-15.
Grand scale is appropriate to this church's role as axial terminus point or focal point for the city.
VIGNON: LA MADELEINE / INTERIOR, 1830-42
Statue of Mary Magdalene on the altar symbolizes France in attitude of repentance over the Revolution and Monarchy (Bourbon monarchy's idea)
Church was consecrated May 4, 1842.
Interior is Roman with domes and vaults.
Exterior is a mixture of Greek and Roman.
VIGNON: LA MADELEINE - 3/4 VIEW
VIGNON: LA MADELEINE - AERIAL VIEW
VIGNON: LA MADELEINE - FAÇADE
VIGNON: LA MADELEINE - PORCH
GREEK PARTHENON, ACROPOLIS, 447-432 BC
Form of La Madeleine is based on antique prototypes:
Greek - triangular pediment
- columned porch/portuco
- colonade surrounding building on four sides.
MAISON CARRÉE, 1st CENTURY BC
Roman Republican temple.
Roman: - central staircase / axial approach
- raised on high base / podium
- swags on entablature
There is a free standing colonnade.
Pedimental sculpture: Last Judgement by Lemaire, c. 1834
Bronze doors: Ten commandments in eight panels.
POYET: PALAIS BOURBON: FAÇADE, 1806-8
See Obelisk in Place de la Concorde (Place Louis XV), 1840.
Church of La Madeleine is on axis with another Greek temple façade building across the Seine River.
AERIAL VIEW: PLACE DE LA CONCORDE AND CHAMPS ÉLYSÉES, 1865
Illustrates two major axes in Paris, one of which is the Triomphal Way.
CHALGRIN: AERIAL VIEW, ARC DE TRIOMPHE, PLACE DE L'ÉTOILE, 1806-37
CHALGRIN: ARC DE TRIOMPHE Place Charles De Gaulle, Paris.
Jean-François CHALGRIN (1739-1811) was an established architect under the Ancien Régime (pre-Revolution).
Tomb of Unknown Soldier beneath the arch is a later addition from WWI.
During the early 19th century, five avenues radiated from the square. Today, there are twelve.
ARCH OF TITUS, 81 AD
Rome.
Form is that of ancient Roman prototype: trumphal archway.
Arch of Titus marked important point in Rome as returning triumphal armies would march under this arch in the Roman Forum which celebrates a specific Roman victory.
Roman arch: attic on top, engaged columns, winged victories in spandrels.
French example: later sculptural g roups - carved reliefs of Revolutions of 1830 (François Rude).
MILITARY PARADE ON THE CHAMPS-ÉLYSÉES
On July 14th, French national holiday.
Arc de Triomphe is located at the end of the Champs-Élysées and served as terminus point of this grand avenue extending from Place de la Concorde.
It was used to review the triumphal armies. Even today, the military review takes place on July 14th.
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HOUDON: BUST OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 1780
Marble, 24x24" - Kansas City
Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828), French sculptor who visited the United States.
1761: won Prix de Rome
1776: began series of great men of France for Le Louvre's Grand Gallery.
Franklin's bust: Naturalness of sitter's living presence and personality, one of earliest example of modern man, unheroic with his own rationality and emotion.
It combines Enlightenment personality with individual physiognomy.
JEFFERSON: MONTICELLO(1) MONTICELLO(2), 1770-84
Charlottesville, VA. Rebuilt 1790-1800.
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) represents first exponent in America of new way of building.
He was a cultivated man (18th century classical education) and a scholar who became important government official (twice U.S. president), philosopher and also artist and architect.
Monticello: Unhappy with traditional colonial Georgian architecture, Jefferson wanted something more grandiose.
Reflects Enlightenment ideals of order and harmony.
PALLADIO: VILLA ROTUNDA, 1550
Vincenza (Northern Italy).
Originally, a two-storey structure with two-storey portico like Palladio's villas in Northern Italy.
Monticello is located on hill with view of surrounding mountains, valleys and plains.
1796: began to rebuild Monticello as a Neo-Classical temple.
Differs from Villa Rotunda by being a permanent residence (vs summer home) and is constructed of local brick rather than stone, with white wood trim and brick columns stuccoed and painted white.
Octogonal dome is echoed in semi-octogonal shapes flanking the portico with single flight of steps.
Doric order chosen as simplest and most masculine of Greek orders.
BULFINCH: CAPITOL, EAST FAÇADE 1827
BULFINCH: CAPITOL, WEST FAÇADE
After Thornton's design.
Completed in 1863 with cast-iron by Thomas U. Walter.
More elaborate Neo-Classical structure for important government building.
Dome raised on high-column drum.
Classical features: pedimented temple façade with colonnade.
Neo-Classicism was popular in Europe and North-America.
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